Perception and Sensation

In psychology we t bar to study head birthr callable to our ways of organizing and doing to the domain of a function depend a vast grass on the way which our finds filter or select from the stimuli, or in trackation, just aboutly us. We come to know our world primarily through our signifieds, and of ecstasy what we adept often affect our behaviour. Definition of sensation Any fundamental get a tenor of stock-stillts from within or without the soundbox that pay onwards from simulation of some sense organ transcription. magician is attained from recognition in that detection requires the interpretation of a sensation.This property is somewhat arbitrary(absolute), however, because some cognition of a sensation mustiness lead before aw atomic number 18ness of that sensation is possible. To put it in a simpler ex identify Although intimately connect, sensation and perception play ii antonymous al one assorted roles in how we interpret our world. Sensation r efers to the bear upon of sensing our surround through touch, discretion, sight, secure, and sense of smell. This data is sent to our geniuss in raw form where perception comes into play. Perception is the way we interpret these sensations and therefore use up sense of everything about us.Simple example of sensation and perception ar Sensation Physical retort. discip draw which is gathe ruddy through one of the human five senses, like despic subject a guitar string and the sapiditying of the string construction. Perception Our mental response towards the sensation, like chaffering an electric guitar and thinking of rock and roll. So how do sensation and perception work together? When sensation occurs, the sensational variety meat absorbs energy from a somatogenetic remark in the environment and because the sensational receptors convert this energy into spooky impulses and send them to the brain.And whence perception follows via the brain execute of organizin g the nurture and translate it into something meaty. The term meaningful in the above context is how the brain follow whether the information is authoritative and whether it should be focused on. We shadower determine this by using a adjoin c every(prenominal)ed Psychophysics. Psychophysics understructure be defined as, the study of how physical stimuli be translated into psychological experience. In psychophysics there be cardinal process that ignore be assumee to measure the importance of the information that get under ones skin been hoard up, selective Attention and perceptual Expectancy.Selective Attention is a process of discriminating among what is important and is irrelevant and is squ be offd by motivation. For example, learners in a lecture bod should be focusing on what the lecturer is saying and the overheads that atomic number 18 beness presented. When a student who doesnt take the lecture walk by the classroom, the student may be focusing on the h atful in the room, who is the t distri simplyivelyer, etc and non the analogous thing the student in the class. Perceptual Expectancy is how we behold the world is a function of our past experience,culture and our biological makeup.For instances, as a local Malaysian city d wellspringer, when I touch at a channel I expect to probe cars, trucks, etc, NOT cinchplanes. But for somebody from the rural bea, aboriginal folks perhaps, who have distinct experiences and history, they office not have all idea what to expect and thus be rage when they contrive cars go driving by. A simpler explanation for perceptual pre fancy whoremaster be describe with the situation when we look at a bear witness or moving demonstrate perhaps, we energy not have whatever idea what the message that they atomic number 18 trying to convey.But if psyche tells you about it, you might be begin to meet things in the picture or disturbting that you were unable to see before. Here is an exper iment to test perceptual expectancy. From the picture given above, backside you find the hidden tiger? Anyway, in devote to measure these psychophysics tied(p)ts psychologist use verge. A wand is a dividing line betwixt what has detectable energy and what does not. For example, no matter how b right-hand(a) X-ray venting is, you annot see it or although there atomic number 18 some delicate instruments that mighth be able to sense the weightlessness from a match struck on a mountain efflorescence 50 miles external on a dark night, your eyeball would not be able to. The add together of energy requi ruddy to bring in a noticeable sensation is called absolute threshold. A indisputable monetary standard of energy is requi deprivation before you can detect a stimulus hence, the existing energy must fluctuate a certain amount before you can detect a certain change in the a stimulus. This minimum amount of energy fluctuation is known as variation threshold. It can overly called the Just Noticeable Difference (JND).Difference threshold alike can change depending on the persons physical condition or motivation or on the qualities of the stimulus existence tested. For example, when you pick out up a 5kg weight and then a 10kg weight, you can feel a big difference between those two. However if you pick up a 50kg and then 55kg, it is much to a greater extent difficult to feel the difference. Webers Law stated that the larger or the stronger the stimulus, the larger or the change required for an observer to notice a difference. The smallest difference in intensity between two stimuli that can be pronto detected is a constant fraction of the original stimulus.Last but not least there is the Signal Detection Theory where the detection of a stimulus involves some decision do process as well as sensory process. Additionally some(prenominal) sensory and decision making process are influenced by galore(postnominal) more factors than just intensify. * d isruption- The factors of how much out of doors interference that exist that might influence the sensory and decision making process. * Criterion- The level of assurance that you decide must be met before you take action. It involves higher mental processes. You set the criterion based on expectation and con orders of inaccuracy.most mountain consider that there are five ways to sense, seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling and touching. In reality, there are any more than just these five but ultimately these five are consider the main or standard senses. VISION. Researchers have studied romance more thoroughly than the an unalike(prenominal) senses. Because muckle need sight to manage close daily activities, the sense of sight has evolved to be highly sophisticated. Vision, however, would not exist without the front of airy. deject is electromagnetic radiation that travels in the form of waves.Light is emitted from the sun, dealers, fire, and infirm bulbs. Most otherwise objects just reflect light. The usual day-dream frame works on sensing and perceiving light waves. Light waves go in their distance and amplitude * wave length ( besides referred to as frequency, since the protracted a wave, the less often/ quick it occurs) affects colouring material perception (ex. , red=approx 700, white- peppyred approx 600) * wave amplitude (this is the sizing/height of the wave) affects brightness perception. raft experience light as having deuce-ace features dis tinct,brightness, and saturation.These 3 types of experiences come from three corresponding characteristics of light waves * The color or hue of light depends on its wavelength, the outmatch between the peaks of its waves. * The brightness of light is related to intensity or the amount of light an object emits or reflects. Brightness depends on light wave amplitude, the height of light waves. Brightness is also somewhat influenced by wavelength. Yellow light races to look brighter than reds or blues. * Saturation or colorfulness depends on light complexity, the normal of speech of wavelengths in light. The color of a single wavelength is unmingled spectral color.Such lights are called fully saturated. Outside a laboratory, light is rarely small or of a single wavelength. Light is usually a mixture of several different wavelengths. The greater number of spectral colourize in a light, the lower the saturation. Light of mixed wavelengths looks duller or paler than pure light. Wavelength Color Amplitude Brightness Complexity SaturationRainbows and LightsWhite light Completely unsaturated. It is a mixture of all wavelengths of light. The visible spectrum Includes the colorise of the rainbow, which are red, orange, yellow, third estate, blue, indigo, and violet.Ultraviolet light The material body of light that causes sunburns. It has a wavelength somewhat shorter than the violet light at the end of the visible spectrum. Infrared radiation Has a wavelength so mewhat longer than the red light at the other end of the visible spectrum. STRUCTURE OF THE EYEThe process of vision cannot be understood without some knowledge about the structure of the eye * The sclera is the white, elastic outmost(prenominal) covering of the eye. * The cornea is the ethereal outer bulge in front of the eye through which light waves prolong * The fleur-de-lys is the pigmented muscular tissue layer that control the aperture in the center of the pupil.The iris determines the amount of light that enters the eye. * The iris surrounds an spread outing called the pupil, the dark circular aperture in the center of the iris of the eye that admits light. The pupil can get bigger or smaller to allow different amounts of light through the electron lensee to the back of the eye. In bright light, the pupil contracts to restrict light aspiration in dim light, the pupil expands to increase light intake. * The lens is the transparent biconvex structure of the eye behind the iris and pupil that focuses light rays entering through the pupil to form an realize on the retina.The lens can adjust its shape to focus light from objects that are near or far away. This process is called accommodation. * Light passing through the cornea, pupil, and lens cutpurses onto the retina at the back of the eye. The retina is the delicate multilayer light natural membrane lining the midland eyeball It consists of layers of ganglion cells,bipolar cells and photoreceptor cells called rods and cones. The image that falls on the retina is evermore upside down. * The ganglion cells are the nerve cells of the retina, which receive impulses from rods and cones via the bipolar cells and transmit those impulses to the brain. visualal nerve are the bundle of nerve fibers connecting the retina and the brain. * bipolar cells are the cells that move in and consolidate visual information. A disperseicular bipolar cell is either rod driven or cone driven, meaning that t he cell receives information from either groups of rods or groups of cones but never from a minute of the two. bipolar cells transmit to the ganglion cells a ratio derived from the luffs they receive from the photoreceptors and nearby horizontal cells. * plain cells are the retina cells with short dendrites and long axons that extend horizontally, linking rods and cones with other cones.Each of these cells fires according to the number light intensity generated by the photoreceptors in its warm neighbourhood. Horizontal cells are thought to influence the opposing color color processes(such as red and green, blue and yellow) are probably responsible, in part for negative afterimages and other opponent-process effects. * Amacrine cells are the large retinene neurons that connect ganglion cells laterally. There are at least 30 different varieties of amacrine cells. Image reflection appears to be one of their many functions. The functions of almost amacrine cells are unknown. The center of the retina, the fovea, is where vision is sharpest. This explains wherefore mass look chairly at an object they want to inspect. This causes the image to fall onto the fovea, where vision is clearest. EYE TROUBLENearsightedness is the in susceptibility to clearly see distant objects. foresightedness is the in top executive to clearly see close objects. A cataract is a lens that has become opaque, allow foring in impaired vision. Blind spot is the region of the retina where the ocular nerve attaches and where there are no photoreceptors. The fovea is also a blind spot when something is viewed in very dim light.Rods and ConesThe retina has millions of photoreceptors called rods and cones. Photoreceptors are specialized cells that respond to light stimuli. There are many more rods than cones. The long, infinitesimal cells, called rods, are highly sensitive to light and allow vision correct in dim conditions. There are no rods in the fovea, which is wherefore vision becomes hazy in dim light. However, the area just outside the fovea contains many rods, and these allow peripheral vision. Because rods are so sensitive to light, in dim illumination conditions peripheral vision is sharper than direct vision.Example volume can often see a star in the night sky if they look a little to the side of the star instead of flat at it. Looking to the side utilizes peripheral vision and makes the image of the star fall onto the periphery of the retina, which contains most of the rods. Cones are conelike cells that can distinguish between different wavelengths of light, allowing peck to see in color. Cones outweart work well in dim light, however, which is why pile have trouble distinguishing colors at night. The fovea has completely cones, but as the distance from the fovea increases, the umber of cones decreases. Feature Rods Cones do Long and narrow Cone-shaped Sensitivity to light High serve up pot to see in dim light Low do people to see in b right light Help color vision No Yes Present in fovea No Yes abundant in periphery of retina Yes No Allow peripheral vision Yes No ADAPTATION TO LIGHT Dark adaptation is the process by which receptor cells sensitize to light, allowing clearer vision in dim light. Light adaptation is the process by which receptor cells desensitize to light, allowing clearer vision in bright light. community to the Optic NerveRods and cones connect via synapses to bipolar neurons, which then connect to other neurons called ganglion cells. The axons of all the ganglion cells in the retina come together to make up the optic nerve. The optic nerve connects to the eye at a spot in the retina called the optic disk. The optic disk is also called the blind spot because it has no rods or cones. Any image that falls on the blind spot disappears from view. contagion of Visual Information Visual information travels from the eye to the brain as follows * Light reflected from an object hits the retinas rods and cones. Rods and cones send neural forecasts to the bipolar cells. * Bipolar cells send signals to the ganglion cells. * Ganglion cells send signals through the optic nerve to the brain. Bipolar and ganglion cells gather and compress information from a large number of rods and cones. The rods and cones that send information to a particular bipolar or ganglion cell make up that cells receptive field. Ganglion cell axons from the inner half of separately eye cross over to the opposite half of the brain. This means that each half of the brain receives signals from both look.Signals from the eyes unexpended sides go to the left side of the brain, and signals from the eyes right sides go to the right side of the brain. The plot below represents this process. Visual Processing in the Brain After world processed in the thalamus and different areas of the brain, visual signals eventually sift the primary visual cortex in the occipital lobe of the brains cerebrum. In the 1960s, David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel demonstrated that highly specialized cells called feature detectors respond to these visual signals in the primary visual cortex.Feature detectors are neurons that respond to specific features of the environment, such as lines and edges. From the visual cortex, visual signals often travel on to other separate of the brain, where more processing occurs. Cells deeper down the visual processing pathway are even more specialized than those in the visual cortex. Psychologists theorize that perception occurs when a large number of neurons in different part of the brain activate. These neurons may respond to various features of the perceived object such as edges, angles, shapes, forepart, brightness, and texture.Color Vision Objects in the world bet to be brightly colored, but they actually have no color at all. Red cars, green leaves, and blue sweaters certainly existbut their color is a psychological experience. Objects only produce or reflect light of differe nt wavelengths and amplitudes. Our eyes and brains then convert this light information to experiences of color. Color vision happens because of two different processes, which occur in sequence * The first process occurs in the retina and is explained by the trichromatic hypothesis. The second process occurs in retinal ganglion cells and in cells in the thalamus and visual cortex. The opponent process possible action explains this process. These two theories are explained below. The Trichromatic Theory Thomas Young and Hermann von Helmholtz proposed the trichromatic surmisal, or Young-Helmholtz sup military position. This theory states that the retina contains three types of cones, which respond to light of three different wavelengths, corresponding to red, green, or blue. Activation of these cones in different combinations and to different degrees results in the perception of other colors. Color MixingMixing lights of different colors is called additive color mixing. This proces s adds wavelengths together and results in more light. Mixing paints, on the other hand, is called subtractive color mixing, a process that removes wavelengths so that there is less light. If red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet light were mixed, the result would be white light. If the said(prenominal) color paints were mixed together, the result would be a dark, muddy color. The trichromatic theory also accounts for color blindness, a hereditary condition that affects a persons ability to distinguish between colors.Most color-blind people are dichromats, which means they are sensitive to only two of the three wavelengths of light. Dichromats are usually deadened either to red or green, but sometimes they cannot see blue. The obstructor Process Theory Ewald Hering proposed the opponent process theory. accord to this theory, the visual system has receptors that react in opposite ways to three pairs of colors. The three pairs of colors are red versus green, blue ve rsus yellow, and black versus white. Some receptors are mad by wavelengths corresponding to red light and are turned off by wavelengths corresponding to green light.Other receptors are activated by yellow light and turned off by blue light. Still others respond oppositely to black and white. Opponent process theory explains why most people perceive four primary colors red, green, blue, and yellow. If trichromatic theory alone fully explained color vision, people would perceive only three primary colors, and all other colors would be combinations of these three colors. However, most people think of yellow as primary rather than as a mixture of colors. Opponent process theory also accounts for complementary color or negative afterimages.Afterimages are colors perceived after other, complementary colors are removed. Example If Jack stares at a picture of a red lusty, wavelengths corresponding to red will activate the interconnected receptors in his visual system. For the sake of si mplicity, these matching receptors can be referred to as red receptors. Anything that makes red receptors increase flak will be seen as red, so Jack will see the square as red. Anything that decreases the firing of red receptors will be seen as green. If Jack stares at the square for a while, the red receptors will get tired out and stick out to fire less.Then if he looks at a blank white planing machine of paper, he will see a green square. The decreased firing of the red receptors produces an experience of a green afterimage. Form Perception The ability to see separate objects or forms is indwelling to daily functioning. Suppose a girl sees a couple in the distance with their arms round each other. If she perceived them as a four-legged, two-armed, two-headed person, shed probably be quite disturbed. peck can make sense of the world because the visual system makes sensible interpretations of the information the eyes pick up.Gestalt psychology, a prepare of thought that aros e in Germany in the early twentieth century, explored how people machinate visual information into patterns and forms. Gestalt psychologists noted that the perceived whole is sometimes more than the sum of its parts. An example of this is the phi phenomenon, or stroboscopic movement, which is an illusion of movement that happens when a series of images is presented very quickly, one after some other. Example The phi phenomenon is what gives phases and objects in movies the illusion of movement.In reality, a movie is a series of still images presented in rapid succession. Gestalt Principles Gestalt psychologists set forth several principles people use to make sense of what they see. These principles include normal and ground, proximity, closure, similarity, continuity, and simplicity * purpose and ground One of the main ways people organize visual information is to divide what they see into physical body and ground. Figure is what stands out, and ground is the understate in which the figure stands. People may see an object as figure if it appears larger or brighter sex act to the background.They may also see an object as figure if it differs noticeably from the background or if it moves against a static environment. * Proximity When objects lie close together, people tend to perceive the objects as a group. For example, in the graphic below, people would probably see these six figures as two groups of three. * Closure People tend to interpret familiar, incomplete forms as complete by option in gaps. People can easily recognize the following figure as the letter k in spite of the gaps. * Similarity People tend to group similar objects together.In the next figure, people could probably distinguish the letter T because similar dots are seen as a group. * doggedness When people see interrupted lines and patterns, they tend to perceive them as being continuous by filling in gaps. The next figure is seen as a circle superimposed on a continuous line rathe r than two lines connected to a circle. * Simplicity People tend to perceive forms as simple, symmetrical figures rather than as irregular ones. This figure is generally seen as one triangle superimposed on another rather than a triangle with an angular piece attached to it. abstruseness PerceptionTo figure out the location of an object, people must be able to prognosticate their distance from that object. Two types of cues supporter them to do this binocular cues and monocular cues. binocular Cues Binocular cues are cues that require both eyes. These types of cues help people to estimate the distance of nearby objects. There are two kinds of binocular cues retinal disparity and convergence. * Retinal disparity marks the difference between two images. Because the eyes lie a couple of inches apart, their retinas pick up some different images of objects. Retinal disparity increases as the eyes get immediate to an object.The brain uses retinal disparity to estimate the distance bet ween the ravisher and the object being viewed. * Convergence is when the eyes turn inward to look at an object close up. The closer the object, the more the eye muscles filter to turn the eyes inward. Information sent from the eye muscles to the brain helps to determine the distance to the object. Monocular Cues Monocular cues are cues that require only one eye. Several different types of monocular cues help us to estimate the distance of objects interposition, motion parallax, relative sizing and clarity, texture gradient, linear perspective, and light and shadow. Interposition When one object is blockage part of another object, the viewer sees the blocked object as being farther away. * Motion parallax or relative motion When the viewer is moving, unmoving objects appear to move in different directions and at different speeds depending on their location. Relatively close objects appear to move backward. The closer the object, the desister it appears to move. nonadjacent obje cts appear to move forward. The further away the object, the slower it appears to move. * Relative size People see objects that make a smaller image on the retina as farther away. Relative clarity Objects that appear sharp, clear, and detailed are seen as closer than more hazy objects. * Texture gradient smaller objects that are more thickly clustered appear farther away than objects that are spread out in space. * Linear perspective reduplicate lines that converge appear far away. The more the lines converge, the greater the perceived distance. * Light and shadow Patterns of light and shadow make objects appear three-dimensional, even though images of objects on the retina are two-dimensional. Creating PerspectiveArtists use monocular cues to give a three-dimensional sort to two-dimensional pictures. For instance, if an artist wanted to paint a landscape dead reckoning with a straight highway on it, she would show the edges of the highway as two parallel lines gradually coming together to indicate that the highway continues into the distance. If she wanted to paint cars on the highway, she would paint bigger cars if she wanted them to seem closer and smaller cars if she wanted them to seem farther away. Perceptual assiduity Another important ability that helps people make sense of the world is perceptual constancy.Perceptual constancy is the ability to recognize that an object remains the homogeneous even when it produces different images on the retina. Example When a man watches his married woman walk away from him, her image on his retina gets smaller and smaller, but he doesnt assume shes shrinking. When a woman holds a appropriate in front of her face, its image is a rectangle. However, when she puts it down on the table, its image is a trapezoid. Yet she knows its the same book. Although perceptual constancy relates to other senses as well, visual constancy is the most studied phenomenon.Different kinds of visual constancies relate to shape, color , size, brightness, and location. * Shape constancy Objects appear to have the same shape even though they make differently shaped retinal images, depending on the exhibit angle. * Size constancy Objects appear to be the same size even though their images get larger or smaller as their distance decreases or increases. Size constancy depends to some extent on familiarity with the object. For example, it is vernacular knowledge that people dont shrink. Size constancy also depends on perceived distance.Perceived size and perceived distance are potently related, and each influences the other. * Brightness constancy People see objects as having the same brightness even when they reflect different amounts of light as lighting conditions change. * Color constancy Different wavelengths of light are reflected from objects under different lighting conditions. Outdoors, objects reflect more light in the blue range of wavelengths, and indoors, objects reflect more light in the yellow range of wavelengths. in spite of this, people see objects as having the same color whether they are open or indoors because of two factors.One factor is that the eyes adapt quickly to different lighting conditions. The other is that the brain interprets the color of an object relative to the colors of nearby objects. In effect, the brain cancels out the extra blue sky outdoors and the extra yellowness indoors. * Location constancy Stationary objects dont appear to move even though their images on the retina elusion as the viewer moves around. Visual Illusions The brain uses Gestalt principles, depth perception cues, and perceptual constancies to make hypotheses about the world. However, the brain sometimes misinterprets information from the senses and makes incorrect hypotheses.The result is an optical illusion. An illusion is a misinterpretation of a sensory stimulus. Illusions can occur in other senses, but most research has been through on visual illusions. In the famous Muller-Lyer illusion shown here, the upright line on the right looks longer than the line on the left, even though the two lines are actually the same length. This illusion is probably due to misinterpretation of depth perception cues. Because of the attached diagonal lines, the vertical line on the left looks like the near edge of a building, and the vertical line on the right looks like the far edge of a room.The brain uses distance cues to estimate size. The retinal images of both lines are the same size, but since one appears nearer, the brain assumes that it must be smaller. Perceptual trim The Muller-Lyer illusion doesnt fool everyone equally. Researchers have found that people who live in cities experience a stronger illusion than people who live in forests. In other words, city-dwelling people see the lines as more different in size. This could be because buildings and rooms surround city dwellers, which prepares them to see the lines as inside and outside edges of buildings.The diffe rence in the strength of the illusion could also be due to variations in the amount of experience people have with making three-dimensional interpretations of two-dimensional drawings. Cultural differences in the tendency to see illusions illustrate the importance of perceptual set. Perceptual set is the readiness to see objects in a particular way based on expectations, experiences, emotions, and assumptions. Perceptual set influences our everyday perceptions and how we perceive reversible figures, which are ambiguous drawings that can be interpreted in more than one way.For example, people might see a vase or two faces in this famous figure, depending on what theyre led to expect. Selective Attention Reversible figures also illustrate the concept of selective caution, the ability to focus on some bits of sensory information and ignore others. When people focus on the white part of the figure, they see a vase, and when they focus on the black part of it, they see two faces. To use the language of Gestalt psychology, people can choose to make the vase figure and the face ground or vice versa.Selective attention allows people to carry on day-to-day activities without being overwhelmed by sensory information. schooling a book would be impossible if the reader paid attention to not only the words on the page but also all the things in his peripheral vision, all the exits around him, all the smells in the air, all the information his brain gets about his body position, air pressure, temperature, and so on. He wouldnt get very far with the book. Context do Another factor that influences perception is the context of the perceiver. Peoples immediate surroundings create expectations that make them see in particular ways.Example The figure below can be seen either as a sequence of letters, A B C, or a sequence of numbers, 12 13 14, depending on whether it is scanned across or down. HEARING Hearing, or audition, depends on the figurehead of rifle waves, which trav el much more slowly than light waves. grievous waves are changes in pressure generated by vibrating molecules. The physical characteristics of go bad waves influence the three psychological features of sound loudness, deliverance, and timbre. * Loudness depends on the amplitude, or height, of sound waves. The greater the amplitude, the louder the sound perceived. Amplitude is measured in decibels.The absolute threshold of human hearing is defined as 0 decibels. Loudness manifold with every 10-decibel increase in amplitude. A Whisper to a waul The loudness of normal human conversation is about sixty decibels. A whisper is about twenty decibels. A shout right into someones ear is about 115 decibels. Being exposed to sounds that are over 120 decibels, even for brief periods, can damage the auditive system. * Pitch, though influenced by amplitude, depends most on the frequency of sound waves. frequency is the number of times per second a sound wave cycles from the highest to the w orst point.The higher the frequency, the higher the pitch. frequence is measured in hertz, or cycles per second. Frequency also affects loudness, with higher-pitched sounds being perceived as louder. Amplitude and frequency of sound waves interact to produce the experiences of loudness and pitch. Whats Audible? Humans can hear sounds that are between 20 and 20,000 hertz. * Timbre, or the particular feel of a sound, depends on thecomplexity of a sound wave. A pure stair has sound waves of only one frequency. Most sound waves are a mixture of different frequencies. The Structure of the EarKnowing the basic structure of the ear is essential to pull ining how hearing works. The ear has three basic parts the outer ear, the middle ear, and the inner ear. The visible part of the ear is the pinna, which collects sound waves and passes them along the auditive canal to a membrane called the tympani. When sound waves hit the eardrum, it vibrates. The eardrum transmits the vibration to thr ee bones, or ossicles, in the middle ear, which are called the hammer, the anvil, and the stirrup. The draw of the ear shows how they got these names they actually look like a hammer, an anvil, and a stirrup.In response to the vibration, these ossicles move one after another. Their function is to amplify the sound vibrations. From the ossicles, vibrations move through a membrane called the oval window to the cochlea of the inner ear. The cochlea is a coiled, fluid-filled tunnel. Inside the cochlea are receptors called cilia or hair cells that are enter in the basilar membrane. The basilar membrane runs along the whole length of the coiled cochlea. Vibrations that reach the inner ear cause the fluid in the cochlea to move in waves. These waves in turn make the hair cells move.The movement triggers impulses in neurons that connect with the hair cells. The axons of these neurons come together to form the audile nerve, which sends impulses from the ear to the brain. In the brain, th e thalamus and the auditory cortex, which is in the temporal lobe of the cerebrum, receive auditory information. Pitch Perception Two theories explain how people distinguish the pitch of different sounds place theory and frequency theory. Place theory explains how people furcate high-pitched sounds that have a frequency greater than 5000 Hz.Place theory states that sound waves of different frequencies trigger receptors at different places on the basilar membrane. The brain figures out the pitch of the sound by detecting the position of the hair cells that sent the neural signal. Frequency theory explains how people discriminate low-pitched sounds that have a frequency below 1000 Hz. According to frequency theory, sound waves of different frequencies make the whole basilar membrane vibrate at different rates and therefore cause neural impulses to be sent at different rates.Pitch is determined by how fast neural signals move along to the brain. The detection of moderately pitched sou nds, with a frequency between 1000 and 5000 Hz, is explained by both place theory and frequency theory. To discriminate among these sounds, the brain uses a code based both on where the neural impulses originated and how quickly neural impulses move. office Sounds In the same way that people use two eyes to perceive depth, people use two ears to locate the origin of sounds. The left ear receives sound waves coming from the left slightly faster than the right ear does.The signal received by the left ear may also be a little more intense than that received in the right ear, because the signal has to go around the head to enter the right ear. Locating a sound is difficult if both ears receive a signal of exactly the same intensity at exactly the same time, as when a sound originates from directly in front, directly behind, or directly above. Turning the head or cocking it to one side can help circumvent this difficulty. TASTE AND SMELL. Taste and smell are chemical senses. As light wa ves stimulate vision and sound waves stimulate sound, chemicals stimulate taste and smell. TASTETaste, or gustation, happens when chemicals stimulate receptors in the tongue and throat, on the inside of the cheeks, and on the roof of the mouth. These receptors are inside taste buds, which in turn are inside little bumps on the skin called papillae. Taste receptors have a short life span and are replaced about every ten days. For a long time, researchers believed in the existence of four tastes salty, sweet, sour, and bitter. Recently, researchers have suggested the presence of a fifth taste called umami. The spice monosodium glutamate (MSG) has an umami taste, as do many protein-rich foods. Taste is also strongly influenced by smell.SMELL Smell, or olfaction, happens when chemicals in the air enter the nose during the breathing process. Smell receptors lie in the top of the nasal passage. They send impulses along the olfactory nerve to the olfactory bulb at the base of the brain. Re searchers theorize that there are a great many types of olfactory receptors. People perceive particular smells when different combinations of receptors are stimulated. Remembrance of Smells Past The sense of smell is closely connected with memory. Most people have had the experience of smelling something, maybe a certain perfume or spice, and suddenly experiencing a strong emotional memory.Researchers dont know exactly why this happens, but they theorize that smell and memory trigger each other because they are processed in neighboring regions of the brain. POSITION MOVEMENT AND BALANCE Kinesthesis is the sense of the position and movement of body parts. Through kinesthesis, people know where all the parts of their bodies are and how they are moving. Receptors for kinesthesis are located in the muscles, joints, and tendons. The sense of balance or equilibrium provides information about where the body exists in space.The sense of balance tells people whether they are standing up, fal ling in an elevator, or riding a roller coaster. The sensory system obscure in balance is called the vestibular system. The main structures in the vestibular system are three fluid-filled tubes calledsemicircular canals, which are located in the inner ear. As the head moves, the fluid in the semicircular canals moves too, stimulating receptors called hair cells, which then send impulses to the brain. TOUCH he sense of touch is really a collection of several senses, encompassing pressure, pain, cold, and warmth.The senses of itch and tickle are related to pressure, and burn injuries are related to pain. Touch receptors are stimulated by mechanical, chemical, and thermal energy. Pressure seems to be the only kind of touch sense that has specific receptors. The Gate-Control Theory of Pain Researchers dont completely understand the mechanics of pain, although they do know that processes in the injured part of the body and processes in the brain both play a role. In the 1960s, Ronald Me lzack and Patrick breakwater proposed an important theory about pain called the adit-control theory of pain.Gate-control theorystates that pain signals traveling from the body to the brain must go through a gate in the spinal cord. If the gate is closed, pain signals cant reach the brain. The gate isnt a physical structure like a fence gate, but rather a pattern of neural natural process that either stops pain signals or allows them to pass. Signals from the brain can open or shut the gate. For example, focusing on pain tends to increase it, whereas ignoring the pain tends to decrease it. Other signals from the skin senses can also close the gate. This process explains why massage, ice, and heat relieve pain.